Bengal Before the British
Before the British Empire cast its vast economic and political shadow over the Indian subcontinent, Bengal was one of the richest, most prosperous, and culturally vibrant regions in the world. Its identity was inseparable from its exquisite textile industry — famed especially for the legendary muslin and silk fabrics. The production of these textiles was not merely an economic activity but an art form, deeply woven into Bengal’s social fabric and cultural ethos.
Muslin, locally known as mulmul, was the very embodiment of craftsmanship and finesse. Woven from the ultra-fine cotton native to Bengal’s fertile delta, muslin was often called “woven air” (shabnam), because of its sheer lightness and softness. It was so delicate and fine that it was said to be invisible when held against the light. Rulers, nobles, and merchants across Asia, the Middle East, and Europe coveted these fabrics, and Bengal’s textile exports fuelled its economy and global renown.
Cities such as Dhaka, Murshidabad, and Sonargaon were bustling hubs of weaving and trade, attracting skilled artisans and merchants. Weavers worked in traditional karkhanas (workshops), often structured along caste lines, passing down their knowledge and skills generation after generation. The combination of Bengal’s ideal climatic conditions, abundant cotton cultivation, and riverine trade routes enabled the textile industry to flourish. By the 18th century, Bengal’s weaving communities were celebrated not just locally but internationally, with Bengal’s textiles forming a significant share of global trade.
Fact: The Bengal Subah (a Mughal province) accounted for more than 12% of the world’s GDP around 1700 — surpassing even England.
Bengal’s Global Textile Reputation
The reputation of Bengal’s textiles was unparalleled. Dhaka muslin, known for its exceptional quality, was traded across the world. The intricate artistry of weavers transformed cotton into fabrics of varying fineness, patterns, and textures, including the famous mulmul khas, jamdani, and ikat weaves.
This industry was sustained by a highly skilled and specialised artisan community. The caste system played a role in preserving the craft, with weaving and dyeing often restricted to hereditary groups. Families controlled specific skills, such as spinning, dyeing, weaving, and finishing. The knowledge was carefully guarded and passed down through oral tradition and apprenticeship. This system created a resilient industry, deeply embedded in social and economic structures.
Merchants linked Bengal’s textiles to global markets, exporting to Europe, Southeast Asia, the Middle East, and Africa. Bengal’s textiles were often the most desired products in international trade fairs and markets. The city of Dhaka alone was estimated to produce millions of yards of muslin annually, rivalling even the most industrialised regions of Europe at the time.
The Arrival of the British East India Company
When the British East India Company (EIC) first arrived in Bengal in the early 1600s, it was one among several European powers — including the Portuguese, Dutch, and French — vying for a share of Bengal’s lucrative trade. Initially, the British acted as merchants and trading partners, participating in Bengal’s flourishing economy without direct interference.
However, the Battle of Plassey in 1757 marked a dramatic shift. The EIC, under Robert Clive, defeated the Nawab of Bengal and established political control over the province. This victory transformed the British from traders to rulers, and Bengal from an independent economic powerhouse to a colonial subject.
This transition heralded a new era of exploitation and systematic dismantling of Bengal’s traditional industries. The East India Company’s policies quickly shifted from facilitating trade to monopolising and controlling production and commerce. The British administration imposed severe restrictions and manipulated markets to serve the interests of British industrial capitalism, at the expense of Bengal’s artisans.
Systematic Dismantling of the Textile Industry
Manipulative Trade Practices and Price Controls
One of the earliest and most damaging policies imposed by the East India Company was the Dadni system — forced contracts that bound weavers to produce cloth at prices fixed by the Company, far below fair market value.
Weavers were compelled to accept advances from Company agents, known as dadni payments, which trapped them in cycles of debt and dependency. Refusal to comply invited harsh punishments, ranging from fines and imprisonment to physical violence, often enforced through local intermediaries and Company sepoys.
The Company further imposed a monopoly on the export of textiles. Bengali weavers and merchants were forbidden from trading their cloth independently, cutting them off from traditional markets. This destroyed centuries-old commercial networks.
Exporting Raw Cotton and Flooding Indian Markets
To fuel the booming textile mills of industrial Britain, raw cotton was aggressively exported from Bengal and other Indian regions. The finished cloth was then imported back into India, sold cheaply, and often dumped in local markets.
Figure: Between 1814 and 1820, imports of British cotton textiles to India increased by over 500%.
This influx of inexpensive British textiles outcompeted local handwoven cloth, leading to a collapse of the domestic industry.
Destruction of Looms and Artisanal Sabotage
There are numerous oral histories and folk songs in Bengal recounting the brutal tactics used to suppress the weaving communities. Tales of British agents cutting off the thumbs of muslin weavers — though contested — symbolise the physical and psychological violence inflicted on artisans.
These acts were part of a calculated economic strategy to eliminate indigenous competition.
The Indigo Curse: Neel Chash and Agricultural Displacement
From the early 19th century, the EIC intensified agricultural exploitation through indigo cultivation under the Tinkathia system. Farmers, especially in Nadia, Jessore, Faridpur, and Rajshahi, were forced to dedicate three kathas out of every bigha of land to grow indigo.
This cultivation was devastating:
- Depleted soil
- Replaced food and cotton crops
- Created cycles of debt
This culminated in the Indigo Revolt (Neel Bidroho) of 1859–60, a mass peasant uprising against British brutality.
The Collapse of the Muslin Industry
Industrial Revolution in Britain
Steam-powered factories in Britain could produce cloth far faster and cheaper than Bengal’s handlooms. Though lacking finesse, these goods dominated global markets.
Tariffs and Import Policies
British textiles entered Indian markets duty-free, while Indian cloth faced high tariffs in Britain — a deliberate economic weapon.
Deliberate Neglect and Disincentives
The colonial administration showed no interest in preserving Bengal’s artisanal excellence. No investment, no innovation, no support.
Loss of Patronage
With the fall of Mughal and Nawabi support, Bengal’s weavers lost their biggest patrons. British tastes and fashion dictated demand.
Flooding the Market
By the 1830s, Manchester replaced Murshidabad as the textile epicentre. Factory-made British cotton overwhelmed Indian markets.
Brutal Social Consequences
Suicides and Migration: Weavers unable to repay debts often took their lives or migrated in search of work.
Loss of Knowledge: Generational artisan skills vanished.
Cultural Erosion: Traditional motifs and weaving styles disappeared.
Women and Child Labour: Families entered exploitative labour markets to survive.
British Justifications and Historical Myths
The British framed their destruction as part of a “civilising mission” — claiming industrialised Britain was modernising a backward East.
Critics like Romesh Dutt exposed this lie, calling it a “bleeding drain.” Historian Shashi Tharoor describes it as “economic vandalism.”
Bengal’s Economic Collapse in Numbers
By the mid-19th century:
- Bengal’s textile exports had plummeted
- Artisans dropped from hundreds of thousands to a few thousand
- GDP and per capita income suffered steep declines
- Bengal transitioned from a textile powerhouse to a raw material supplier
Legacy and Modern Reflections
Though devastated, Bengal’s artisan legacy endures:
- Bangladesh’s modern garment industry — a $45+ billion export sector — shows economic resurgence.
- Handloom sectors in both India and Bangladesh preserve traditional craft.
- Jamdani weaving has been granted UNESCO heritage recognition.
Conclusion: Remembering and Rebuilding
Understanding the history of Bengal’s textile decline under British colonial rule is vital to appreciate the resilience and richness of its cultural heritage. It is a powerful reminder of how imperial economic policies can devastate local industries, livelihoods, and identities.
Today, efforts to revive traditional crafts, protect artisan communities, and decolonise historical narratives continue — honouring Bengal’s unmatched contribution to the world’s textile legacy.
Further Reading
- Chaudhury, Sushil. The Trading World of the Indian Ocean: 1500–1800. Cambridge University Press, 1990.
- Mukherjee, Rudrangshu. Awadh in Revolt 1857-1858: A Study of Popular Resistance. Permanent Black, 2002.
- Raychaudhuri, Tapan. The Cambridge Economic History of India. Volume 1, c.1200-c.1750. Cambridge University Press, 1982.
- Bayly, C. A. Empire and Information: Intelligence Gathering and Social Communication in India, 1780–1870. Cambridge University Press, 1996.
- Tharoor, Shashi. Inglorious Empire: What the British Did to India. Hurst Publishers, 2017.
- Eaton, Richard M. The Rise of Islam and the Bengal Frontier, 1204–1760. University of California Press, 1993.
- Roy, Tirthankar. The Economic History of India 1857–1947. Oxford University Press, 2000.
- Chatterjee, Partha. The Nation and Its Fragments: Colonial and Postcolonial Histories. Princeton University Press, 1993.
- Habib, Irfan. The Agrarian System of Mughal India 1556–1707. Oxford University Press, 1999.
